What is pornography? Does it use, degrade, and denigrate women? Is it harmful to society? Does it harm men? "Pornograhy" and erotic art has been around since people learned to draw on cave walls. Today it is widely avialible in print, video, text and on the internet. This paper examines the ethical debate on pornography. The definition of pornograhy, eroctica, eroctic art and ethical considerations will be explored.
What is the definition of pornography? Pornography stems from the Greek words for porno, meaning prostitutes, and the word graphos, meaning writing (Hunt, (1993).. Since the early Greek days the word has assumed various meanings. It has been difficult to define according to many historians (Kendrick, 1987). The Carnegie Mellon Pornography Study" study adopts the "definition" utilized currently by computer pornographers. "Pornography" is defined here to include the depiction of actual sexual contact ("hard-core") and depiction of mere nudity or lascivious exhibition ("soft-core"). The courts and numerous United States statutes concur with the distinction between "hard-core" and "soft-core pornography." By this definition, not all pornography meets the legal test for obscenity, nor are all depictions of sexual activity deemed pornographic material.
Erotica refers to, sexually suggestive or arousing material that is free of sexism, racism, and homophobia, and respectful of all human beings and animals portrayed. It could also mean, "Overtly or explicitly sexual marterial." One notable feminist, scholor and author, Dr. Diana Russell, defines erotica to be, "material that combines sex and/or the exposure of genitals with abuse or degradation in a manner that appears to endorse, condone, or encourage such behavior." Eroctica gets a lot of attention from feminists like Russell, but is not subject to the legal definitions and courtroom battles as is pornography.
The First Amendment ,to the Constitution of the United States is often used by the courts and promoters of pornography to define its meaning. In order to be obscene, and therefore outside the protection of the First Amendment, an image must meet the following criteria to be declared obscene under most statutes:
When considered by the statutes and prosecuters, adult porongraphic material is initially presumed to be nonobscene in nature. ( Fort Wayne Books, Inc. v. Indiana), (requiring judicial determination of obscenity before material can be removed from circulation (requiring procedures for seizure of obscenity which give police adequate guidance regarding the definition of obscenity to ensure no infringement on dissemination of constitutionally protected speech). Law enforcerment officers and prosecutors attempting to pursue an obscenity investigation or prosecution face constitutionally mandated procedural obstacles not present in other criminal matters. (See New York v. P.J. Videos, Inc.) For instance, the "plain view" exception to the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement, whereby contraband plainly visible to a law enforcement officer may be seized, does not apply to allegedly obscene material because, prior to a judicial determination, nothing is obscene and therefore, a fortiori, nothing can be considered contraband. (See Lo-Ji Sales, Inc. v. New York, 442 U.S. 319, 325 (1979)) (requiring that search warrants contain specific description of allegedly obscene items to be seized).
Child Pornography enjoys none of the constitutional protections cited above. In New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747 (1982), the Supreme Court explicitly removed pornography depicting minors from the protections of the First Amendment. Whether they are obscene or not, pictures of children engaged in sexualy explicit conduct are not constitutionally protected. "Because the government interest identified by the Supreme Court as justifying removing child pornography from the protection of the First Amendment is more urgent than the government interest which justifies denying protection to obscenity, and because the child pornography standard is far less vague than the obscenity standard, law enforcers and prosecutors are not bound by any unique procedural burdens here". (From United States v. Weigand, 812 F.2d 1239 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 484 U.S. 856 (1987).
The Supreme Court rulings on pornography creates two distinct categories of sexually explicit imagery that are not protected by the First Amendment. While ascertaining whether a particular digital image contains a minor is not difficult for the average person to do, ascertaining whether a particular digital image is obscene in the abstract is nearly impossible.
Pornographic material is widely availible. It is availible in mom and pop, as well as large chain video stores, magazine counters and adult bookstores. These outlets are regulated and materials are not accesible to minors. But what about the internet? There is an abundance of sexually explicit material on the internet which is graphicly portrayed in this table at the Ethics Connection Website.
What are the percieved effects of pornography on women? Are they harmed, used, exploted? What about violence? Does pornography cause violence against women and children? What are some of the views the males feel about pornography?, Why don't women just stop posing nude if they feel so strongly about the dangers of pornography?, What do the American people think about pornography?, and What is the male's inclination to rape? The above questions are just some of the myriad of questions asked by many individuals. One view of pornography that was expressed by Diana Russell (1997) was that, "pornography does not include all the features that commonly characterize such material. For example, pornography frequently depicts females, particularly female sexuality, inaccurately." It has been shown that pornography consumers are more likely to believe that unusual sexual practices are more common than they really are (Zillmann, 1989). "Sexual objectification is another common characteristic of pornography. It refers to the portrayal of human beings-usually women-as depersonalized sexual things using derogatory names to describe them and their various body parts, not as multi-faceted human beings deserving equal rights with men(Zillman, 1989)." The sexual objectification of females is not confined to pornography. It is also a staple of mainstream movies, ads, record covers, songs, magazines, television, art, cartoons, literature, pin-ups, and so on, as well as being a way of conceptualizing how many men learn to see women and sometimes children." (Russell 1997)
The case of Ted Bundy has become a classic tretise of evidence of the effects of pornography (Leilani 1989). Leilani's article, 'What we learned from Ted Bundy', explores the issue in detail. Bundy, who was once assistant director of the Seattle Crime Prevention Advisory Committee and wrote a pamphelt about rape prevention is responsible for raping and murdoring 50 young women. Bundy was a Boy Scout and was involved in Washington State politics. He was executed in January of 1997. Hours before his death Bundy told psychologist James Dobson about the effects of pornography on his life. Bundy claimed he began by reading soft-core pornography at the age of 12. He and his friends would often find pornographic books and magazines in garbage cans in his neighborhood. He soon graduated to hard-core pornography and claimed that pornography eventually became a "deadly habit" to him. "My experience with pornography is that once you become addicted to it, (and I look at this as a kind of addiction like other kinds of addiction), I would keep looking for more potent, more explicit, more graphic kinds of material. Like an addiction, you keep craving something that is harder, something which gives you a greater sense of excitement. Until you reach a point where the pornography only goes so far, you reach that jumping off point where you begin to wonder if maybe actually doing it would give you that which is beyond just reading or looking at it." Within a few years, those latent desires fueled by pornography were expressed through his first murder. Although Bundy said he did not blame pornography, he explained that pornographic materials shaped and molded his behavior. He also warned the nation that the most damaging kinds of pornography ... are those that involve violence and sexual violence. "Because the wedding of those two forces, as I know only too well, brings out the hatred that is just, just too terrible to describe."
Bundy said that pornography, "snatched me out of my home 20, or 30 years ago ... and pornography can reach out and snatch a kid out of any house today." His religious training and morality initially restrained him from acting out his fantasies, but he confessed that finally, "I couldn't hold back anymore." Bundy claimed that alchohol finaly broke the restraints for him to commit his first murder. "What alcohol did in conjunction with exposure to pornography is (sic) alcohol reduced my inhibitions at the same time the fantasy life that was fueled by pornography eroded them further.",claimed Bundy.
Bundy said he felt possessed by "something ... awful and alien" while he was in the act of commiting his 50 murdors. "There is just absolutely no way to describe first the brutal urge to do that kind of thing, and then what happens is once it has been more or less satisfied and recedes, you might say, or spent, that energy level recedes and basically I become myself again. But basically I was a normal person. I wasn't some guy hanging out at bars or a bum. I wasn't a pervert in the sense that people look at somebody and say, 'I know there is something wrong with him, you can just tell.' I was essentially a normal person," Bundy told Dobson. "The basic humanity and the basic spirit that God gave me was intact, but unfortunately became overwhelmed at times."
Bundy's last words of confession and warning about pornography are an echo of statistics, research, and reports conducted within the last decade about the link between pornography and sexually violent crime. According to a study conducted by a group of psychologists, Neil Malamuth of UCLA, Gene Abel of Columbia University, and William Marshall of Kingston Penitentiary, various forms of pornography can elicit fantasies which may lead to crime. Out of a test group of 18 rapists studied who used 'consenting pornography' to instigate a sexual offence, seven of them said that it provided a cue to elicit fantasies of forced sex.
Arguments have been made that pornography has some positive benefits for both men and women. MacKinnon(1981),claims that if pornography is part of a person's sexuality, then that person has no right to their sexuality. Women who enjoy pornography claim that they are offended by these kinds of attitudes, and want it recognized that they get more out of pornography than oppression. As writer Sallie Tisdale writes, "pornography tells me the opposite [of what Dworkin and MacKinnon tell me]: that none of my thoughts are bad, that anything goes. The message of pornography is that our sexual selves are real." (Strossen 1995). The Meese Commission on Pornography found that two areas in which sexually explicity materials have been used for positive benefits: treatment of sexual dysfunctions and diagnosis and treatment of sexual addictions (Strossen 1995). The Commission also found that pornography has entertainment benefits, can improve marital relations and could relieve people of the impusle to commit crimes. Some argue that the recognition of alternative sex acts and preferences in pornography has liberated them from the prescriptive comprehension of sex or helped them feel more comfortable about their own sexuality. This could be construed as a positive function of pornography that would be difficult to attain in other ways that did not contain the same degree of sexual honesty and explicitness as pornography.
Strossen(1995)claims that gays, bisexuals and lesbians have used pornography as a resource when they were questioning the validity of ther sexuality. It became a means for them to test the validity of their personal feelings about sexuality. For many of these people it was the only way they could enjoy their sexuality without exposoure to other individuals.
Pornography and obscenity certainly raises a few moral questions. Olen & Bary, (1996) in their book, Applying Ethics, pose two important questions: Are pornographic materials morally objectionable or not?; Is it right for the state to regulate access to pornographic material to consenting adults? Olen & Barry assert that whether or not pornography is moral is a seperate and distinct question from whether or not the state should regulate access to pornography by consenting adults. Olen & Barry argue that often arguments for censorship assume that pornograpy is morally wrong and for this reason alone it should be suppressed. Should what is immoral then be suppressed? The issue remains academic untill it is finally established that pornorgraphy is indeed immoral.
Olen & Barry (1996) make several points and counterpoints in their treament of the ethics of pornography. Point: "Every piece of pornography shares at least one thing with every other piece of pornography, it degrades human beings. By seperating sex from love, by concentrating on impersonal lust at the expense of our more human emotions, by appealing to and arousing the lust of its readers and viewers, even the mildest pornography reduces humanity to the level of animals. And much of today's pornography goes even further, portraying the most disgusting and dehumanizing acts of secual sado-masochism imaginalbe."
In their counterpoint to the above quote Olan & Barry state that some people may find pornography degrading, but many people do not. Many enjoy it. They posit the consideration that there is no reason people should not enjoy pornography because lust is as human as any other emotion, and that there is not anything inherently immoral about being sexually aroused by erotic pictures and writing. Even if they consider sex with love the ideal, should everything we see and read portray ideal situations exclusively? The fact that one person may find pornography immoral and disgusting, does not mean that it actually is any more so than finding certain foods or styles of clothing disgusting makes them immoral or dehumanizing.
This point assumes that pornography portrays women as sex objects and playthings, exsisting for the pure pleasure of men. This is said to perpetuate the most demeaning stereotype of women. This view maintains that pornography is a form of propaganda against women, encouraging sexual violence against women. The counterpoint to this view is that anything that advocates violence against any group is certainly immoral. If certain types of pornography advocate rape it of course, cannot be condoned or defended however, according to Olen & Barry, this kind of pornography is extremely rare. They also claim that pornography that legitimately can be construed as anti-woman propaganda is also very rare. They state the main purpose of pornography is not to defame women as a group. Its primary function is to make profits by appealing to the sexual interests and fantasies of some men. They state that this is no more immoral than appealing to the sexual fantasies of women by portraying men as sexual objects.
Olen & Barry state that pornography may have some beneficial effects. It can aid normal sexual development, help with dissactisfaction in sexual relationships, encourage couples to be more open about sex, and provide sexual gratification for people who do not have sexual partners. Pornography also has a history of being successfully used in sex therapy to treat a varitey of sexual disorders and disfunctions. It also provides pleasure which millions of people enjoy while using pornographic materials.
There are certainly many arguments for and against pornography. It can be argued that both sides of the issue can present valid arguements for and against pornography. It is a subject that will continue to be debated, researched and argued by many different organizations and courts, and will most likely be debated for many years to come. The ethical considerations of pornography are diverse and offer many philosophical views for and against it. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects all forms of pornography as free speach, with the noted exception of chile pornography. Feminists continue to abhor pornography as demeaning to women and contributing to their being seen as objects of desire and control for men. Many men who use pornography say that they use it only for stimulation and it does not lower their appreciation or value of women. The religious right maintains that pornography ought to be banned because it is moraly wrong. Theorists, philosophers, religious leaders, the courts and common citizens will surely be caught up in the ethical considerations of pornography for some time to come. Meanwhile pornography continues to be a huge force in the social and personal context. Sexually explicit images and live strip shows are abundant on the internet. Pornographic movies are availible at almost all video outlets and the top shelf of most magazine and book stores continues to be well stocked with sexualy explicit material.
Assister, A. (1991). Pornography, feminism and the individual. London: Pluto Press.
Berger, R., Searles, P., & Cottle, C. (1991). Feminism and pornography. New York: Praeger Publishers.
Carnegie/RIMM/Mellon University/TIME Cyberporn Study. (1996). The Georgetown Law Review (GLJ), 83, 5.
Corpus, L. (1989). What we learned from Ted Bundy.[On-line]. Availible: http://www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0332_Ted_Bundy.html
Dworkin, A. (1981). Pornography: Men possessing women. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
Fort Wayne Books, Inc. v. Indiana, 489 U.S. 46, 62 (1989). United States Supreme Court.
Garcia, L. (1986). Exposure to pornography and attitudes about women and rape: A correlational study. Journal of Sex Research, 22, 378-85.
Hawkins, G., & Zimring, F. (1988). Pornography in a free society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hunt,L. (1993). The Invention of pornography : Obscenity and the origins of modernity, 1500-1800. Publisher : NY : Zone Books ; Cambridge, MA. MIT Press, 1993.
Kendrick,W. (1987). The secret museum: Pornography in modern culture. University of California, Berkley Press.
Lo-Ji Sales, Inc. v. New York, 442 U.S. 319, 325 (1979). United States Supreme Court.
Longino, H. (1996). Pornography, oppression, and freedom: A closer look. In A. Jaggar (Ed.), Living with contradictions: Controversies in feminist social ethic. (p. 154-161). Boulder, CO.: Westview Press.
MacKinnon, C. (1993). Only words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Malamuth, N. & Centiti, J. (1986). Repeated exposure to violent and nonviolent pornography: Likelihood of raping ratings and laboratory aggression against women. Aggressive Behavior, 12, 129-37.
New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747 (1982). United States Supreme Court.
Olen, J., & Barry, V., (1997). Applying Ethics. [ a text with readings]. 5th ed. California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Russell, D. (1996). From a speech given at The University of Maine at Machias, Maine.
Shiffrin, S. & Choper, J. (1996). The First amendment: Cases, comments, questions. St. Paul: West Publishing Co.
Stoller, R. (1991). Porn: Myths for the twentieth century. New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press.
Strossen, N. (1995). Defending pornography. New York: Scribner.
United States v. Weigand, 812 F.2d 1239 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 484 U.S. 856 (1987). United States Supreme Court.
Wekesser, C. (Ed.). (1997). Pornography: Opposing viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. (Opposing Viewpoints Series, Vol. 15)
Definition of Pornography
<>http://trfn.pgh.pa.us/guest/mrfoot.html
Pornography" stems from the Greek words, porno, meaning prostitutes, and graphos, meaning writing. Over the course of history, it has assumed many definitions and meanings. See generally Lynn Hunt, The Invention of Pornography (1993). not all pornography meets the legal test for obscenity, nor should all depictions of sexual activity be construed as pornographic.
Is the Internet Addictive?
<>http://rdz.stjohns.edu/~storm/iad.html
Is the Internet Addictive, or Are Addicts Using the Internet? What is Internet Addiction? Factors inherent in on- when they are still discovering the capabilities of new Internet social connections. Young felt that the ability to assume different roles, to develop intimate relationships and to be unconcerned about any possible repercussions were the most important factors of Internet interconnectivity that were most likely to contribute to the potential for IAD. The implication of this insightful analysis of how the Internet can satisfy basic and advanced human needs is that many people experience being thwarted in their attempts to gain satisfaction at a specific level of need in real life, and may find the Internet is the first interpersonal medium that satisfies these drives.
Ethics Connection the Impact of Sexually-Explicit Materials and Pornography
<>http://www.scu.edu/Ethics/practicing/focusareas/technology/libraryaccess/impact.shtml
The Impact of Sexually Explicit Materials and Pornography.
Included are of the many materials on the impact of exposure to sexually explicit and pornographic images. Included is an article from Current Psychology, one from Maclean's Magazine, and one from the National Coalition Against Pornography. Eleanor Willemsen, chair of Santa Clara's Psychology Department points out the necessity to distinguish between essay comments by experienced clinicians that encounter pornography-related problems in clients and empirical studies that attempt to look at causal links.
Women and British Porn Laws
<>http://www.secularhumanism.org/library/fi/matrix_17_4.html
At a humanist meeting in London views of the organization Feminists Against Censorship (FAC) were expressed, and campaign to extend Britain's already severe legal restrictions on pornography were discussed. Many anti-porn women in the United Kingdom do not realize that it is the law and the cops that make British pornography so one-sided. They "don't like pornography" because there is nothing there to like - anything that is likely to appeal to women is likely to invite police raids or boycotts by the major distributors. An active member of Feminists Against Censorship (FAC), she is the editor of the FAC book Tales from the Clit: A Female Experience of Pornography (AK Press 1996).
Axiological Assumptions
<>http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/axiology.html
Ethical issues pertaining to the Web and Cyberspace are abundant and include; personal privacy, individualism and isolation, equality of access, computer crime, pornography, job loss, commercialism, materialism, and cultural imperialism. While these issues are very specific and tied to specific attributes of the Web environment and specific ways of using the Web, some argue that the larger issue is simply the all-encompassing nature of the technological system, of which this is only one small part. Such an advocate, and a leading writer on the ethical issues surrounding technology and media, was Jacques Ellul. One of the most basic value-laden questions regarding a new technology is; will the technology result in a better quality of life for its users? In Neil Postman's book Technopoly (1993), the author began with the story of Thamus, from Plato's Phaedrus. In the story, which is familiar to students of philosophy, King Thamus is visited by Theuth, the inventor god.
<>http://www.lib.siu.edu/cni/addend-g.html
Pornography is only a minor symptom of sexuality and of very little prominence in people's minds most of the time. " In confronting pornography "agencies of criminal justice, and especially the courts, behave in a very curious manner that is quite dangerous for the freedom of ideas as they might be expressed in other zones of activity such as politics, religion, or the family. " The problem is not that pornography represents a "clear and present danger" but that "the kind of thinking prevalent in dealing with pornography will come to be prevalent in controlling advocacy of other ideas as well. The author is an American lawyer, with experience in cases involving pornography. The author defines and analyzes the role of pornography and comments throughout on efforts to control and suppress it. "The author discusses the philosophic conflict, the legal aspects and the definitional dilemma involved in the areas of obscenity and hard-core pornography, and challenges some current beliefs.
Sociological Implications of Censorship on the Internet
<>http://www.cs.unca.edu/~laspaldc/project.html
"As the most participatory form of mass speech yet developed, the Internet deserves the highest protection from government intrusion. I would hazard a guess and say that all of those groups and many more have found the Internet a rich and diverse source of controversy for the years to come with regards to the issues of Internet porn and censorship. The Internet in general is a hot topic today and issues of censorship and privacy are in newspapers, magazines, and on television and the Internet itself every day. Some practical things you can do to help children make wise choices about Internet use include: put your computer in a well trafficked family place so you can actively monitor where your child goes and what they see never buy your child a computer of his/her own, rather, buy it for yourself and allow the child to use it to avoid the "You can't tell me what to do with my stuff" argument periodically check the cache-if you didn't visit "Leather Ladies and Their Toys", know that someone did! Despite all the questionable things out there in Cyberspace, many helpful sites may be banned from the Internet if these attempts to censor the Internet succeed. An interesting essay by Michael Landier, which I don't entirely agree with entitled Internet Censorship is Absurd and Unconstitutional does explain a lot of the problems censorship creates with regards to the Internet given its history as a widespread source of information. Title: CMC Magazine January 1996
Sexually Explicit Materials and the Internet
<>http://www.december.com/cmc/mag/1996/jan/birpharm.html
There is a great deal of contemporary research that suggests that pornography harms women. The testimony of many women who worked in the pornography industry shows that they have been harmed. The sociological and psychological research provides evidence that pornography creates a view of women that desensitizes men to the harm connected to violent crimes against women, and in some cases makes them more likely to commit these crimes. The proposal to ban pornography faces the same technological problems as regulating obscenity on the Internet.
Feminist Theory Select Bibliography
<>http://lark.cc.ukans.edu/~akdclass/femlit/femjurbib.html
Select Bibliography: General This bibliography is intended to acquaint you with some of the major works on feminist theory, feminist jurisprudence, and the intersection of these with the areas covered by the bibliography headings. 1989) M. French, Beyond Power: On Women, Men, and Morals (1985) Friedan, B., The Feminine Mystique (1963) hooks, b., Ain't I a Woman? 1181 (1981) (excerpts) Legal Education * Grimke, Sarah M., Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women (1838, republished 1970, 1988). Hill (1992) hooks, b., Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism (1981) Morrison, T., ed.
The Effects of Pornography
<>http://www.umd.umich.edu/HyperNews/get/106/finporn/10.html
Research from an abundance of information about pornography and the feminist views of pornography.. "Some studies show that 65 to 75 percent of the current population of women in prostitution and pornography (overlapping experiences for the same pool of women) have been abused as children, usually in the home. People who work with women who are in pornography and prostitution to provide social services or counseling, some of whom have been in pornography or prostitution themselves, believe the percentage is much, much higher. "The Time surveyed found that pornography was much more troubling to women than to men: 50 percent of women were "very concerned"; only 27 percent of men figured in this category of highest concern. A total of 61 percent of the people polled believed pornography encourages people to consider women as sex objects: 50 percent of men thought this was true, 71 percent of women. 66 percent of the total, and 82 percent of the women, thought that some pornography contributes to violent crimes against women; 70 percent of the total, and 89 percent of the women, thought that some pornography is discrimination against women.
Sociocultural Issues in Pornography
<>http://www.csulb.edu/~asc/journal.html
Sexuality & Culture is a forum for the discussion and analysis of ethical, cultural, psychological, social, and political issues related to sexual relationships and sexual behavior. Articles in the 1997 volume dealt with a central theme: Sexual Harassment and Sexual Consent with emphasis in Academia. Theoretical and Empirical articles dealt with issues of consent, harassment, and fraternization.
What's Wrong With Using Sex To Advertise Things?
<>http://www.jed.org.au/eternity/sexinads.htm
An examination of the issues surrounding sex in advertising.
Pornography
<>http://www.lcl.cmu.edu/CAAE/Home/Forum/pornography/background/bkground.html
This background section provides an overview of their perspectives and suggestions for further conversations. Anti-Pornography Feminists Works discussed include Catherine MacKinnon's Only Words and selections from Susan Dwyer's The Problem of Pornography. Anti-Censorship Feminists Works discussed include Drucilla Cornell's The Imaginary Domain and Nadine Strossen's Defending Pornography. Anti-Anti-Pornography Feminists Works discussed include Pat Califia's Public Sex and Wendy McElroy's A Woman's Right to Pornography. The issue of pornography and its relation to Censorship and the Internet can be found throughout the World Wide Web. See also a Special HyperText Edition on Pornography and the Internet in the Computer-Mediated Communications Magazine (a linear version of Robert Cavalier's article, Feminism and Pornography: A Dialogical Perspective is available at this site).
CMU Rimm Porno Study
<>http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/u/hl0t/Rimm-Porn.html
Various CyberIssues at the Three Rivers Free-Net and what's being said regarding the "Carnegie Mellon University * (w/footnotes) Don't Miss Clicking on all the numbers In. The Rimm Index Also there are certain problems with the: Ethics of the * not to mention the criticism of the validity of the CMU/Rimm report Favorite Quote on this topic, "Every professional is going to vomit when they read this study. ", said Brian Reid who is the Director of the Network Systems Laboratory at Digital Equipment Corporation, Palo Alto, CA. , "It stretches the limit of credibility in every direction.
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